This is essential to explore the within-field spatial variability at sufficient resolutions to guarantee efficient site-specific management of soil and crop using variable rate technologies. Although the portable version is easy to use, it is labour-intensive in addition to the fact that the number of samples can be limited, compared with those collected by the online systems, which can reach up to 1000 readings per hectare or even more ( Mouazen and Kuang, 2016). Both for soil and crop, proximal sensors can also be classified as portable handheld, or online (here measurement is taken while driving across a field by means of a tractor or a quad bike). In comparison with remote sensing, with proximal sensing the sensor is placed in direct contact or within a distance of 2 m from the target ( Viscarra Rossel et al., 2011 ). Sudduth, in Agricultural Internet of Things and Decision Support for Precision Smart Farming, 2020 2.3.1 A brief introduction to proximal sensing technology
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